THE ORIGINS OF THE QUR’AN

INTRODUCTION

THE word “Qur’an” is derived from the Arabic verb (قَرَأ) to read. It means “the reading,” or rather “that which is to be read.” It is taken from Surah al-Alaq 96:1  ¹  which is said to have been the first Surah revealed to Muhammad. This word, first used to designate a portion only of the Qur’an, was subsequently, and is now, used to describe the whole collection of the “revelations” made to Muhammad. The Traditions relate many wonderful stories regarding the descent of inspiration upon Muhammad, of which ‘Ayesha, the favourite wife of the Prophet, has preserved the following: “The first revelations which the Prophet received were in true dreams, and he never dreamt but it came like the dawn of day. After this the Prophet became fond of retirement, and used to seclude himself in a cave in Mount Hira and worship there day and night .... till one day the angel came to him and said, ‘Read,’ but the Prophet said, ‘I am not a reader.’ ‘Then,’ said Muhammad, ‘he took hold of me and squeezed me as much as I could bear, and he then let me go and again he said, ‘Read,’ and I said, ‘I am not a reader.’ Then he took hold of me a second time and squeezed me as much as I could bear, and then let me go and said, ‘Read,’ and I said, ‘I am not a reader.’ Then he took hold of me a third time and squeezed me as much as I could bear and said:—

اقْرَأْ بِاسْمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ خَلَقَ الْإِنسَانَ مِنْ عَلَقٍ اقْرَأْ وَرَبُّكَ الْأَكْرَمُ الَّذِي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِ عَلَّمَ الْإِنسَانَ مَا لَمْ يَعْلَمْ  ² 

RECITE thou, in the name of thy Lord who created;– Created man from CLOTS OF BLOOD:– Recite thou! For thy Lord is the most Beneficent, Who hath taught the use of the pen;– Hath taught Man that which he knoweth not. ³ 

Then the Prophet repeated the words himself, and with his heart trembling returned to Khadija and said, ‘Wrap me up! Wrap me up!’ and they wrapped him up in a garment until his fear was dispelled.”  ⁴ 

Such Traditions as the one related above, together with the oft-repeated statements of the Qur’an itself, form the basis of the Muhammadan belief that the Qur’an is the uncreated word of God which was communicated to Muhammad in a miraculous manner, chiefly by the mediation of the angel Gabriel. The Qur’an, it is said, was extant in the highest heaven from all eternity, written on the Lauhu’l-Mahfuz, or the “preserved table,” near the throne of God, and then sent down to the lowest heaven in the month of Ramadan, whence it was revealed to Muhammad piecemeal during a period of some twenty-three years. The Qur’an abounds in passages asserting its divine origin, and many are the anathemas hurled at those who refuse to acknowledge its claims. Bukhari and others have preserved numerous Traditions, for which we have no space here, relating the manner and occasion of these “revelations;” whilst later writers, such as Jalalu’d-Din as-Syuti, have classified and arranged the different modes of this divine inspiration such as, by the mediation of an angel, by suggestion in the heart of the Prophet, by dreams, by direct communication from God to the Prophet and so forth. We are not concerned here, however, with these details,  ⁵ and for the purposes of this enquiry it must suffice to state the bare fact that the Qur’an is held in the highest esteem by 200,000,000 of people, taking the average estimate, who look upon it as the very word of God, existent in heaven from all eternity, and finally given to the world through the agency of his chosen messenger Muhammad.

The purpose of this small book is to examine this stupendous claim, and to enquire whether the contents of the Qur’an may not be accounted for apart from this theory of divine inspiration. To the Muhammadan reader, whose mind revolts from the suggestion to subject the holy Qur’an to such a critical study, we commend the following words of Sir Syed Ahmad in his commentary on the Holy Bible.  ⁶  This Muhammadan scholar says, “I can by no means rest content with the superstitious notion that Scripture, and all Scriptures in general, even the Holy Qur’an, must not be subjected to critical examination. Would any one imagine for a moment that the most exalted of blessings bestowed upon man, namely, the faculty of reason, is given to us to remain idle? Can we conscientiously and faithfully profess to be Christians or Muhammadans without being able to give a reason for our belief, or without exercising our intellect to the utmost of our ability in the thoughtful and reverent consideration and examination of the precious volume which is given us as a guide of our faith? ... On the contrary I would earnestly desire that those sacred writings be examined with fairness, and discussed with respectful but not impertinent freedom.”

May the Muslim reader of this book, remembering the solemn and eternal nature of the issues involved, seek, in the spirit of Sir Syed Ahmad’s statement, to investigate with candid freedom the book upon which his faith is based. For ourselves we believe, and will try to prove that the Qur’an is nothing more than a heterogeneous collection of doctrines and stories already current in Arabia in the time of Muhammad, which were adopted and altered by him, and afterwards given out from time to time as a direct revelation from God. To these stories were added a number of practical precepts, both positive and negative, which were called forth by the exigences of the time. In accordance with this plan we purpose to discuss in order (1) those portions of the Qur’an which Muhammad adopted from the heathen religions of his day; (2) those portions which have a Jewish origin, both Biblical and Talmudic; (3) those portions which Muhammad learned from his Christian contemporaries; and finally (4) those portions of the Qur’an which were called forth by the special circumstances of the moment, and which were suited to support and sanction the varied actions of the Prophet.

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CHAPTER II

JEWISH BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
INCORPORATED INTO THE QUR’AN

WHILST a study of the Qur’an makes it abundantly clear what Muhammad borrowed from the idolatrous Arabs of his time, and also incorporated into his system not a little of Christian truth, yet an investigation into the sources of the Qur’an reveals the fact that Islam is, in the main, little more than Talmudic Judaism, plus the assertion of the apostleship of Muhammad. We purpose in this chapter to prove the truth of this assertion.

It need scarcely be said that Muhammad had ample opportunity for intercourse with Jews, from whom he could learn the stories current amongst them relating to the early patriarchs and others.  ²¹ Any comparison of the stories as given in the Qur’an with the Talmudic perversions of scripture histories will make it clear that the Jews of Mecca and Madina communicated their legends to Muhammad, who then recast them and gave them out to the ignorant Arabs as ‘revelations’ from heaven. It should be remembered that the Talmud was completed a century previous to the era of Muhammad, and cannot fail to have extensively influenced the religious creed of all the Jews of the Arabian Peninsula. In one passage of the Qur’an Muhammad speaks of a certain Jew as a witness to his mission; in many places his disputes and arguments with them are mentioned, and it is clear that at one time, at least, his relations with them were those of friendship and intimacy. Hence it can easily be understood how easy it was for Muhammad to take the Jewish fables, to which he so frequently listened, and then to work them up in a form such as would commend itself to Arabian ears. There is no doubt that Muhammad was in the habit of questioning the Jews concerning their religion, and the great Traditionist Muslim has preserved for us a Tradition to that effect as follows:—

قَالَ ابْنُ عَبَّاسٍ فلما سَأَلَهُمُ النَّبِيُّ صلعم عَنْ شَىْءٍ من أهل الكتاب فَكَتَمُوهُ إِيَّاهُ وَأَخْبَرُوهُ بِغَيْرِهِ فَخَرَجُوا قَدْ أَرَوْهُ أَنْ قَدْ أَخْبَرُوهُ بِمَا سَأَلَهُمْ عَنْهُ

“Ibn ‘Abbas records that, when the Prophet asked any question of the people of the Book, they suppressed the matter, and in place of it told him something else, and went away letting him think that they had told him what he asked.”  ²² 

More significant still is the fact that Muhammad excused himself for thus obtaining his materials for his stories, by pretending that he had received a revelation commanding him to do so. Thus in Surah Yunas (10:94) we read:—

فَاسْأَلِ الَّذِينَ يَقْرَءُونَ الْكِتَابَ مِن قَبْلِكَ

“(O Muhammad) ask those who are reading the book before thee.” The Muslim historian Tabari further tells us “Khadija (the first wife of the Prophet) read the former scriptures and knew the stories of the prophets.” Now Muhammad lived with Khadija for some fifteen years before he began to announce his mission, and when it is remembered that during that period he must also have had close and frequent intercourse with Waraqa, the cousin of his wife, who was in turn both Hanif and Christian, and was the translator of the Christian scriptures into Arabic  ²³ , the reader is at no difficulty to understand whence the Prophet obtained his knowledge of the Jewish Rabbinical fables.

We now propose to give examples of the way in which Muhammad adopted the stories of Jewish history which were current amongst his contemporaries; but before doing so, it will be necessary to clear the ground somewhat by reminding the reader of the state of Jewish thought in Arabia at this time. The Jews, especially in the neighbourhood of Madina, were both powerful and numerous; but the study of the Old Testament scriptures had largely given place to that of the Talmud. The latter was a chaotic arrangement of Rabbinical speculations, comments, and traditions connected with the Hebrew Bible. This encyclopaedia of laws and traditions records the thoughts of a thousand years of the national life of the Jewish people, and in it the oral traditions of the race have been carefully preserved. Yet it is “a literary wilderness,” without order or arrangement, often grossly unhistorical, and abounding in puerile fancies and absurd stories. This made up the mental pabulum of the Jews of Muhammad’s time, and it was the apocryphal stories of the Talmud which delighted the ears of Jewish audiences, and furnished the basis of instruction in Jewish schools. Thus it was the stories of the Talmud, rather than of the Bible, which Muhammad would learn in his intercourse with the Jews; and we will now proceed to show that the stories of the Patriarchs and others detailed in the Qur’an agree with the, often unhistorical, legends of the Hagadah rather than with the Bible.

In Surah al-Ma’idah (5:27-32) there is a curious story connected with Cain and Abel. It is there (verse 31) related that, after Cain had killed his brother,

فَبَعَثَ اللَّهُ غُرَابًا يَبْحَثُ فِي الْأَرْضِ لِيُرِيَهُ كَيْفَ يُوَارِي سَوْءَةَ أَخِيهِ

“God sent a raven which scratched the earth to show him (Cain) how he should hide his brother’s body.” Every student of the Torah knows that this story is not to be found in the revelation given to Moses; but we are not left in doubt as to where Muhammad learned the legend; for in a Rabbinical work known as the Targum of Jonathan, Pirke Rabbi Eliezer, Chapter XXI, we read, “Adam and his helpmate were sitting and weeping and mourning for him (Abel), and did not know what to do (with Abel), for they were unaccustomed to burial. A raven (came), one of its fellow birds was dead (at its side). (The raven) said: I will teach man what to do. It took its fellow and dug in the earth, hid it and buried it before them. Adam said: Like this raven will I act. He took the corpse of Abel and dug in the earth and buried it.”  ²⁴ From a comparison of these two passages it is clear that Muhammad had heard from the Jews the fable of the burial of Abel as related in the Rabbinical books, and thinking it derived from the scriptures, repeated it, with slight alterations, as if revealed to him from heaven.

The Qur’an abounds with stories of the Patriarch Abraham. These in many instances flagrantly contradict the Biblical narrative; but a comparison of them with the Rabbinical legends of the Jews, leaves no room for doubt that Muhammad learnt them from the latter during his close intercourse with them. Thus in several places of the Qur’an the story is told of Abraham’s being cast into a fiery furnace by order of a king (whom the commentators name Nimrod) because of the Patriarch’s refusal to worship idols. It is said in Surah al-Anbiya’ (21:69,71) that when Abraham was cast into the fire, God said:—

يَا نَارُ كُونِي بَرْدًا وَسَلَامًا عَلَىٰ إِبْرَاهِيْمَ …وَنَجَّيْنَاهُ

“O fire, be thou cold, and a preservation unto Abraham, and we saved him.” Now it is a curious fact that this legend, which has no basis in scripture, is found in its entirety in a Jewish book called the Midrash Rabba.  ²⁵ From the Torah we learn that the Patriarch Abraham before his entrance into the land of Canaan resided in the city named Ur in the land of Chaldea; but God brought him out of that city and took him to the land of promise. Thus in Genesis 15:7, we read, “I am the Lord that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees.” This city was evidently unknown to the ignorant Jewish author of the Midrash mentioned above; for in his comment on the verse quoted he took the word “Ur,” which also means fire, in its bare literal sense, and supposed that God had delivered Abraham out of a fire. So, to explain the verse “I am the Lord that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees,” a story was invented of Abraham’s being cast into fire by Nimrod, whence he was miraculously saved by God. The whole story is given at length in the Midrash Rabba referred to above, and was well known to the Arabian Jews of Muhammad’s time. It is there written, “ Now this happened at the time when Nimrod cast Abraham into the oven of fire, because he would not worship the idols, that leave was withheld from the fire to hurt him.”

The reader is now in a position to understand the source of the story as it appears in the Qur’an, the author of which was evidently as ignorant of the real meaning of the words the Jewish commentator referred to above. If any further proof were needed to show the utterly unhistorical nature of the whole narrative, it may be found in the fact that Nimrod was not a contemporary of Abraham at all, but preceded him by many years.

Another Qur’anic story which has an undoubted Jewish origin is that found in Surah Ta Ha (20:87-88) in connection with the calf which was worshipped by the Israelites during Moses’ absence on Mount Sinai. We are there told that the people brought their ornaments of gold and silver and cast them into the fire, after which

فَكَذَلِكَ أَلْقَى السَّامِرِيُّ فَأَخْرَجَ لَهُمْ عِجْلًا جَسَدًا لَّهُ خُوَارٌ

“in like manner Samiri also cast them in and he brought out to them a corporeal, lowing calf.” It is well known that the Torah contains no mention of the golden calf having lowed; but Rabbinical fables are not wanting in which the story as reproduced by Muhammad is clearly traced. Thus in the Pirke Rabbi Eleazar we read, “The calf having cried aloud, came forth, and the children of Israel saw it.”  ²⁶  Rabbi Yahuda further preserves a fable to the effect that a man named Sammael secreted himself inside the image and made a cry like a calf in order to lead the Israelites astray.  ²⁷ Such is the story which was current amongst the Jews of Arabia in the time of Muhammad. Let it be compared with the narrative of the Qur’an and the reader will easily see that Muhammad, thinking the story which he heard upon the lips of his Jewish contemporaries to be a part of the scripture record, adopted and later gave it out to the ignorant Arabs as though revealed from heaven.

Unfortunately Muhammad failed to rightly understand the allusion to the man Sammael, and, confounding his name with the name of the Samaritans, whom he probably knew to be enemies of the Jews, makes the Samaritan (السَّامِرِي) to have a part in the matter. Since, however, the Samaritans did not come into existence as a people until some centuries after the event recorded here, it must require a wide stretch of credulity indeed to enable one to believe that this Qur’anic tale also was handed down from heaven by the angel Gabriel.

In the Surah an-Naml (27:44), we find a long story of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba in which it is stated that the former sent a letter to the Queen by a bird which he called for the purpose. The story goes on to say that the letter resulted in the determination of the Queen to visit Solomon. When she at length arrived at the palace of the King,

قِيلَ لَهَا ادْخُلِي الصَّرْحَ فَلَمَّا رَأَتْهُ حَسِبَتْهُ لُجَّةً وَكَشَفَتْ عَن سَاقَيْهَا قَالَ إِنَّهُ صَرْحٌ مُّمَرَّدٌ مِّن قَوَارِيرَ

“It was said to her, ‘Enter the palace,’ and when she saw it she imagined that it was a great lake of water, and she uncovered her legs. He said ‘verily it is a palace paved with glass.’“ Hearing this the Queen replied like any good Muslim, “I resign myself unto God the Lord of all creatures.”

Every reader of the Holy Bible knows that all this is mere fable, and has no place in the word of God; hence the question naturally arises as to the source of the story. In the Targum of the Book of Esther, a Rabbinical work full of fables and mythical stories, may be found, often in the very same words, practically the whole story as told by Muhammad. In this Targum we read, “Solomon, know that she (the Queen) was come, arose and sat down in the palace of glass. When the Queen of Sheba saw it, she thought that the glass floor was water, and so, in crossing over lifted up her garments.”  ²⁸  Much more might be quoted from the same book, including the whole incident of the bird-messenger; but enough has been written to show that the story as found in the Qur’an is nothing more than a Rabbinical tale which Muhammad had learned from the Jews. Let the reader study the real history as found in the Holy Bible (1 Kings X) and he will see what a vast distance separates truth from fiction.

Another fable which Muhammad learned from the Jews and incorporated into the Qur’an, is a fanciful story of God’s holding a mountain over the Israelites in order to frighten them. In Surah al-A’raf 7:171) we read:—

وَإِذ نَتَقْنَا الْجَبَلَ فَوْقَهُمْ كَأَنَّهُ ظُلَّةٌ وَظَنُّواْ أَنَّهُ وَاقِعٌ بِهِمْ

“And when we shook the mountain over them as though it had been a shadow; and they imagined it was falling upon them.” This story has no foundation in fact; but it is to be found in a Jewish tract called the Abodah Sarah. The Torah relates nothing of the kind, but simply states that, while God was giving Moses the Law on mount Sinai, all the people stood beneath, i.e., at the foot of, the Mount. The Jewish commentators, however, soon turned this into a fanciful story of God’s holding the mountain over the people; and in the story as found in the Abodah Sarah God is represented as saying to the Israelites, “I covered you over with the mountain like a lid.”  ²⁹  In another Rabbinical version of the story we read that God “inverted the holy mountain above them like a pot, and said unto them, ‘if ye receive the Law, well; but if not, there will your grave be.’“ This legend, which was current amongst the Jews of Arabia, must have reached the ears of Muhammad, who, imagining it to be a part of the Biblical story, soon incorporated it into his Qur’an and bade Muslims for all time to believe in it as a part of the word of God, preserved from all eternity near the throne of God in heaven, and finally sent down to Muhammad by the agency of the angel Gabriel.

The story quoted above is only equalled for absurdity by that of the fallen angels which is found in Surah al-Hijr (15:16-18) where it is gravely stated that the devils endeavour to hear what is going on in heaven, and are then driven away by meteors which are cast at them by the angels. Thus we read:—

وَلَقَدْ جَعَلْنَا فِي السَّمَاء بُرُوجًا وَزَيَّنَّاهَا لِلنَّاظِرِينَ وَحَفِظْنَاهَا مِن كُلِّ شَيْطَانٍ رَّجِيمٍ إِلاَّ مَنِ اسْتَرَقَ السَّمْعَ فَأَتْبَعَهُ شِهَابٌ مُّبِينٌ

“We have placed signs of zodiac in the heaven, and have adorned them for the spectators; and We guard them from every stoned Satan except such as steal a hearing; and him doth a visible flame consume;” and again, in Surah al-Mulk (67:5) we read:—

وَجَعَلْنَاهَا رُجُومًا لِّلشَّيَاطِينِ

“We have placed them (the stars) there to be darted at the Satans.” So much for Muhammad’s explanation of shooting stars! His ideas of the devils attempting to ‘steal a hearing’ in the courts of heaven, however, are not original, but are simply echoes of a Jewish fable preserved in the Hagigah, where it is said that the demons “listen from behind a curtain” in order to obtain a knowledge of future events. Further comment upon these mythical tales is needless. No intelligent Muslim, we are convinced, can accept them as of divine origin; and their very presence in the Qur’an bears eloquent testimony to the human origin of the book.

Much more might be written to show how much Muhammad was indebted to the Jews for the ideas which he afterwards embodied in the Qur’an; but the limits of this little book compel us to be content with one or two more examples.

As both the Jews and Sabians observed a month’s fast in the year, it is not easy to determine which of these sects furnished Muhammad with the similar injunction now found in the Qur’an; but in connection with this fast there is a rule enjoined in the Qur’an which is undoubtedly of Jewish origin. In Surah al-Baqarah (2:187), we read:—

كُلُواْ وَاشْرَبُواْ حَتَّى يَتَبَيَّنَ لَكُمُ الْخَيْطُ الأَبْيَضُ مِنَ الْخَيْطِ الأَسْوَدِ مِنَ الْفَجْرِ ثُمَّ أَتِمُّواْ الصِّيَامَ إِلَى الَّليْلِ

“Eat and drink until ye can discern a white thread from a black thread by the daybreak then fast strictly till night.” This ingenious method of determining when the night ended and the day began was not original, however, but was copied by Muhammad from the Jews who, long before, had adopted a similar practice; and in the Mishnah Berakhoth we read that the fast began, “when one can distinguish between a blue thread and a white one.”  ³⁰  Yet Muslims are asked to believe that Muhammad had no part in the composition of the Qur’an:— that the whole was revealed from heaven where it had been kept from all eternity upon the “preserved table.” On the contrary, we will now proceed to prove that the very idea of a scripture preserved on a table is itself a plagiarism from the Jews.

In Surah al-Buruj (85:21-22) we read:—

بَلْ هُوَ قُرْآنٌ مَّجِيدٌ فِي لَوْحٍ مَّحْفُوظٍ

“Yet it is a glorious Qur’an in a preserved table.” This wonderful table is much spoken of in Muhammadan tradition. A sample of the fanciful and extravagant stories there found is given below from the Qisau’l-Anbiya’. It is there related that in the beginning, “Beneath the throne God created a pearl, and from the pearl (should this be pen?) He created the preserved table. Its height was seven hundred years journey and its breadth three hundred years journey.” Then after describing the creation of a pen the author proceeds, “accordingly, the pen wrote down God’s knowledge in God’s most high creation of everything that He wished unto the resurrection day; the extent that the leaf of a tree moveth or descendeth or ascendeth, and it wrote every such thing by the power of God most High.”

This notion of a table upon which the words of God are preserved is an obvious parody of the inspired narrative of the Torah where we read that God said to Moses, “How thee two tables of stone like unto the first, and come up unto Me into the mount, and make thee an ark of wood. And I will write on the tables the words that were on the first tables which thou brakest, and though shalt put them in the ark.”  ³¹ It is specially significant that the very Hebrew word “luach”  ³² used for these tables in the Torah is that adopted by Muhammad in describing his imaginary table. He had doubtless, often heard from the Jews the story of the tables of stone which were preserved in the ark, and, not wishing for his Qur’an a less distinguished origin, adopted and elaborated the idea of a book written and preserved in heaven itself. The Prophet, however, over-reached himself; and in an unguarded moment made God to say, “We have, since the Law was given, written in the Psalms that my servants, the righteous, shall inherit the earth;”  ³³ so that, for all time, the faith of Muslims is staggered by the spectacle of a Qur’an which claims to have been written in the beginning of creation, quoting from a book not then two thousand years old. Most intelligent people will regard this as a proof that the Qur’an was written after the Psalms.

If further proof were needed to show that the Qur’an is largely based upon Talmudic Judaism, it may surely be found in the large number of words of Hebrew origin which are found therein. The following words amongst others, are of Hebrew origin, Tabut تَابُوتٌ ; Torah تَورَاةٌ ; ‘Adn عَدْنٌ ; Jahannam جَهَنَّم ; Ahbar أحبَارٌ ; Sabt سَبْتٌ ; Sakinat سَكِيْنَةٌ ; Taghut طَاغُوتٌ ; Furqan فُرْقَانٌ ; Ma’un مَاعُوْن ; Mathani مَثَاني ; and Malakut مَلَكُوْتٌ ‎. ³⁴   The curious will find in Dr. Imadu’d-Din’s famous “Hidayatu’l-Muslimin,”  ³⁵ a list of no less than one hundred and fourteen non-Arabic words, together with their original significations, which are to be found in the Qur’an.

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CHAPTER IV

PORTIONS OF THE QUR’AN CALLED FORTH BY THE
CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE TIME

WE are convinced that a careful and unprejudiced study of the Qur’an will prove beyond doubt that large portions of it were deliberately framed by Muhammad to suit his own ends. This is a grave charge, and we now proceed to substantiate it. It should ever be remembered that “a comparison of the historical facts in the life of Muhammad with the various portions of the Qur’an connected with them is necessary, if that life is to be intelligently understood. Another and equally important result of such comparison is that it shows the gradual way in which the Qur’an came into existence, and how admirably the revelations fitted in to the local circumstances, and gave what was claimed to be divine authority and support to the varied actions of the Prophet. In this way alone could his change of policy be justified and he himself be protected from the charge of time-serving and inconsistency.”  ⁴⁵ Such a study alone will enable the reader to understand such questions as a change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, the substitution of an order to “Kill the idolaters wherever ye find them”  ⁴⁶ for the pacific policy of “No compulsion in religion,”  ⁴⁷ as well as the many contradictory injunctions relating to the domestic affairs of the Prophet. That Muhammad did on a certain occasion succumb to the temptation to forge a revelation upon the Quraish is amply testified by numerous Muhammadan writers, including such well-known authorities as Ibn Hisham, Tabari, Yahya’ and Jalalu’d-Din. The circumstances of the Prophet’s fall are as follows. One day, we are told, he entered the holy sanctuary of Mecca, and began to recite the Surah an-Najm (53). The long-continued opposition of the Quraish had disheartened the prophet, and he longed for some means of gaining the good-will of his opposers. The temptation to compromise was great, and the prospect of reconciliation with those who maligned him too alluring to be withstood. The prophet fell, for when he came to the words, “Do ye see al-Lat and al-’Uzza and Manat the third (idol) besides” (verses 19-20) he added, to the delight of his hearers, the words, “These are the exalted females, and verily their intercession is to be hoped for.” The Quraish were delighted and joined the Prophet in worship, saying “Now we know that it is the Lord alone that giveth life and taketh it away, that createth and supporteth. These our goddesses make intercession for us with Him, and as thou hast conceded unto them a position we are content to follow thee.” But Muhammad soon repented of his rash compromise, and withdrew the words of commendation which he had used regarding the Arab idols, substituting in their stead the words now found in the Qur’an:—

أَلَكُمُ الذَّكَرُ وَلَهُ الْأُنْثَىٰ تِلْكَ إِذًا قِسْمَةٌ ضِيزَىٰ إِنْ هِيَ إِلَّا أَسْمَاءٌ سَمَّيْتُمُوهَا أَنْتُمْ وَآبَاؤُكُمْ

“What! shall ye have male progeny and God female? This were indeed an unfair partition. These are mere names and your fathers named them such.” (vv. 21-3). Then, to cover his fault, he produced yet another revelation in which God is made to comfort him by the reflection that he was in good company, for former prophets had been tempted in precisely the same manner by the devil, who was the author of the whole mistake. Thus in Surah al-Hajj (22:52) we read:—

وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا مِنْ قَبْلِكَ مِنْ رَسُولٍ وَلَا نَبِيٍّ إِلَّا إِذَا تَمَنَّىٰ أَلْقَى الشَّيْطَانُ فِي أُمْنِيَّتِهِ فَيَنْسَخُ اللَّهُ مَا يُلْقِي الشَّيْطَانُ ⁴⁸ 

“We have not sent an apostle or prophet before thee but when he read, Satan injected some (error) in his reading; but God shall bring to nought that which Satan hath suggested.”

The incident related above is such a grave one that we quote at some length to show that its truthfulness is vouched for by the highest authority; for if thus early in his career the prophet of Arabia so easily fell into the temptation to compose a passage in order to gain the good will of his enemies, it is manifest that later on when worldly ambition loomed so large in his horizon, the temptation to do so would be doubly great. We quote, therefore, below, the account of the incident given by Mu’alim al Tanzeel (Tafseer Al Baghawi):—

قَالَ ابْنُ عَبَّاسٍ وَمُحَمَّدُ بْنُ كَعْبٍ الْقُرَظِيُّ وَغَيْرُهُمَا مِنَ الْمُفَسِّرِينَ: لَمَّا رَأَى رَسُولُ اللَّهِ تَوَلِّي قَوْمِهِ عَنْهُ وَشَقَّ عَلَيْهِ مَا رَأَى مِنْ مُبَاعَدَتِهِمْ عَمَّا جَاءَهُمْ بِهِ مِنَ اللَّهِ تَمَنَّى فِي نَفْسِهِ أَنْ يَأْتِيَهُ مِنَ اللَّهِ مَا يُقَارِبُ بَيْنَهُ وَبَيْنَ قَوْمِهِ لِحِرْصِهِ عَلَى إِيمَانِهِمْ ، فَكَانَ يَوْمًا فِي مَجْلِسِ قُرَيْشٍ فَأَنْزَلَ اللَّهُ تَعَالَى سُورَةَ النَّجْمِ فَقَرَأَهَا رَسُولُ اللَّهِ حَتَّى بَلَغَ قَوْلَه: «أَفَرَأَيْتُمُ اللَّاتَ وَالْعُزَّى وَمَنَاةَ الثَّالِثَةَ الْأُخْرَى» أَلْقَى الشَّيْطَانُ عَلَى لِسَانِهِ بِمَا كَانَ يُحَدِّثُ بِهِ نَفْسَهُ وَيَتَمَنَّاهُ: «تِلْكَ الْغَرَانِيقُ الْعُلَى وَإِنَّ شَفَاعَتَهُنَّ لِتُرْتَجَى»، فَلَمَّا سَمِعَتْ قُرَيْشٌ ذَلِكَ فَرِحُوا بِهِ ⁴⁹ 

“It is related by Ibn ‘Abbas and Muhammad ibn Ka’b al-Qarzi and other commentators besides that when Muhammad saw that his people (the Quraish) retired from him and opposed him, and rejected that (Qur’an) which he had brought them from God, he wished in his heart that some such word would come to him from God by which friendship might be established between him and his people, and an inducement held out to them to believe. And it came to pass that one day he was in the temple of the Quraish when God sent down Surah an-Najm. And the Prophet recited it, and when he arrived at the words ‘Do ye see al-Lat and al-’Uzza and Manat the third (idol) besides,’ Satan placed upon his lips what he had longed for in his heart: ‘These are the exalted females, and verily their intercession is to be hoped for.’ When the Quraish heard this they rejoiced.”

Another form of the story is given in the Mawahibu’l-Luduniyyah, as follows:—

قرأ رسول الله صلعم بمكة «والنجم»، فلما بلغ «أَفَرَأَيْتُمُ اللَّاتَ وَالْعُزَّى. وَمَناةَ الثَّالِثَةَ الْأُخْرى» ألقى الشيطان على لسانه «تلك الغرانيق العلا، وإن شفاعتهن لترتجى» فقال المشركون: «ما ذكر آلهتنا بخير قبل اليوم»، فسجد وسجدوا فنزلت هذه الآية «وما أرسلنا من قبلك من رسول ولا نبي إلا إذا تمنى ألقى الشيطان في أمنيته».

“The Prophet (on whom be blessing and peace) was reading Surah an-Najm (53) in Mecca, and when he arrived at the words ‘Do ye see al-Lat and al-’Uzza’ and Manat the third (idol) besides,’ Satan cast upon his lips the words ‘these are the exalted females and verily their intercession is to be hoped for,’ and the idolators said, ‘he hath spoken well of our goddesses’. And he worshipped and they worshipped; and then was sent down this verse, ‘We have not sent an apostle or prophet before thee into whose reading Satan did not cast (some error).’“  ⁵⁰ 

It is to the credit of the Apostle that he so soon repented of the fall related above, and ever afterwards consistently opposed idolatry in every form; but the experience gained did him little good, and we soon find him again changing his utterances to suit his own ends. Thus when the Prophet fled to Madina, a persecuted and helpless man, he soon recognized the necessity of conciliating, and if possible winning to his side, the numerous and powerful communities of Jews who lived there. For this purpose he made Jerusalem his Qibla, and for some considerable time continued to pray in the direction of the Jewish city; but when at last all efforts to win the Jews to his side failed, and his own position had become strengthened by the accession of numerous Arabs, he felt the necessity of once more trying to woo the Quraish to his side, and for that purpose brought forward a “revelation”  ⁵¹ again making the Ka’ba the Qibla. Thus in Surah al-Baqarah we read:—

وَمَا جَعَلْنَا الْقِبْلَةَ الَّتِي كُنتَ عَلَيْهَا إِلَّا لِنَعْلَمَ مَن يَتَّبِعُ الرَّسُولَ مِمَّن يَنقَلِبُ عَلَىٰ عَقِبَيْهِ وَإِن كَانَتْ لَكَبِيرَةً إِلَّا عَلَى الَّذِينَ هَدَى اللَّهُ وَمَا كَانَ اللَّهُ لِيُضِيعَ إِيمَانَكُمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ بِالنَّاسِ لَرَءُوفٌ رَّحِيمٌ قَدْ نَرَىٰ تَقَلُّبَ وَجْهِكَ فِي السَّمَاءِ فَلَنُوَلِّيَنَّكَ قِبْلَةً تَرْضَاهَا فَوَلِّ وَجْهَكَ شَطْرَ الْمَسْجِدِ الْحَرَامِ وَحَيْثُ مَا كُنتُمْ فَوَلُّوا وُجُوهَكُمْ شَطْرَهُ

“We appointed the Qibla towards which thou didst formerly (pray), only that We might know him who followeth the Apostle from him who turneth back on his heels. This (change) seems a great matter, unless unto those whom God hath directed. But God will not render your faith of none effect, for God is gracious and merciful unto man. We have seen thee turn thy face towards heaven, but We will cause thee to turn thyself towards a Qibla that will please thee. Turn therefore thy face towards the holy temple (of Mecca) and wherever ye be, turn your faces toward that place.”

Good Muhammadan exegetes admit these facts; thus Jalalu’d-din says:—

فلما هاجر أُمِرَ باستقبال بيت المقدس تألُّفا لليهود ستة أو سبعة عشر شهراً ثم حُوِّلَ

“After his flight he (Muhammad) ordered (his followers) to turn to the Temple at Jerusalem; this, however, which was done to conciliate the Jews, held good for six or seven months only, and then he changed it again.”  ⁵² 

‘Abdu’l-Qadir admits that the Prophet wished to make Mecca his Qibla once more, and says:—

چاہتے تھے کہ کعبہ کی طرف نماز پڑھنے کا حکم آئے۔ سو آسمان کی طرف منہ کرکے راہ دیکھتے تھے کہ شائد فرشتہ حکم لائے کہ کعبے کی طرف نماز پڑھو

“He wished that he might receive a command to pray towards the Ka’ba, and for this reason he kept his gaze fixed on the heavens, if perchance an angel might appear with a command for him to pray towards the Ka’ba.”  ⁵³ It is not strange that, under the circumstances, the Apostle soon found a way to gratify his wish, and that a “revelation” appeared sanctioning the change.

Another arbitrary command which Muhammad gave out in the early years of his residence at Madina has reference to the Jewish fast; and it too, like the Jerusalem Qibla, was afterwards revoked. The following story will illustrate the charge, and show how local circumstances called forth various arbitrary laws from Muhammad, who afterwards repealed them with equal alacrity when necessity arose. Thus Kazim tells us that:—

رُوي أَنَّ رسول الله لَمَّا قَدِمَ الْمَدِينَةَ وَجَدَ يهوداً يَصُومُونَ عَاشُورَاءَ فسألهم عن ذلك فَقَالُوا إنه الذي غرق فيه فِرْعَوْنَ وقومه ونجي موسى ومن معه، فقال: «أَنَا أحق بِمُوسَى مِنْهُمْ» وأمر بصوم عاشوراء. ⁵⁴ 

“It is said that when the Apostle of God came to Madina, he found the Jews fasting on ‘Ashura. He asked them their reason for so doing, and they answered; ‘Because on this day Pharaoh and his people were drowned, but Moses and his followers were saved;’ on which Muhammad said, I stand in closer connection with Moses than they do and then he commanded the fast-day ‘Ashura.” This fast, which is still observed on the tenth of Ramadan as a voluntary and meritorious fast, affords clear proof of the way Muhammad borrowed from other systems when he wished to do so, and refutes the claim that he received his religious injunctions by direct revelation.

Another story which illustrates the very human origin of the Qur’an is the one told by many Muhammadan commentators with regard to Muhammad’s marriage with Zainab the divorced wife of his adopted son Zaid. Zaid was known as the “Son of Muhammad,” and had taken to wife a beautiful woman named Zainab. One day, we are told, the Prophet happened to visit the house of Zaid and found Zainab in a dress which ill concealed her beauty. The Prophet was smitten by the sight, and exclaimed in admiration “Praise be to God who turneth the hearts of men.”  ⁵⁵ Zainab overheard the words, and forthwith acquainted her husband with the fact. The latter then divorced his wife, and offered her to Muhammad; but the Prophet hesitated to consummate a marriage with the divorced wife of his adopted son, and so, anxious to avoid the scandal which he knew would follow, solved the difficulty and justified his immediate marriage with Zainab by a “revelation” commanding him to take her to wife. This extraordinary piece of “revelation” is to be found in Surah al-Ahzab (33:37) and runs as follows:—

فَلَمَّا قَضَىٰ زَيْدٌ مِنْهَا وَطَرًا زَوَّجْنَاكَهَا لِكَيْ لَا يَكُونَ عَلَى الْمُؤْمِنِينَ حَرَجٌ فِي أَزْوَاجِ أَدْعِيَائِهِمْ

“But when Zaid had determined the matter concerning her (Zainab), We joined her in marriage unto thee, lest a crime should be charged on the true believers in (marrying} the wives of their adopted sons.” Can the intelligent Muslim reader believe, we ask, that the words quoted above are indeed the words of God? Is it not rather self-evident that the whole passage instead of being a revelation direct from God, was deliberately framed and promulgated by Muhammad in order to justify his conduct.

Another revelation put forward by Muhammad to justify a change in his domestic affairs is the one found in Surah at-Tahrim (66:1-2) in which permission is granted to him to break his oaths. The story which is told by many commentators is as follows. Muhammad having shown too great a partiality for a slave girl named Mary, aroused thereby the jealousy of his numerous wives, who rebuked him so sharply that he took a solemn oath not to touch the maid again. But the Prophet found the promise easier to make than keep, and his longing for the beautiful Coptic slave girl proving too strong for him, he forthwith solved the difficulty, and justified a renewal of his relations with her by the following revelation in which permission is given him to break his oaths:—

يَا أَيُّهَا النَّبِيُّ لِمَ تُحَرِّمُ مَا أَحَلَّ اللَّهُ لَكَ تَبْتَغِي مَرْضَاتَ أَزْوَاجِكَ وَاللَّهُ غَفُورٌ رَحِيمٌ قَدْ فَرَضَ اللَّهُ لَكُمْ تَحِلَّةَ أَيْمَانِكُمْ

“O Prophet! why holdest thou that to be prohibited (haram) which God hath made lawful to thee, from a desire to please thy wives, since God is Lenient, Merciful? God hath allowed you release from your oaths.” We abstain from further comment on this passage, and content ourselves with asking the intelligent Muslim to earnestly consider whether it is possible that these words of the Qur’an were, ages before the creation, written upon the preserved table in heaven. In this connection, there is a Tradition preserved by Muslim,  ⁵⁶ which offers a suggestive comment upon Muhammad’s domestic legislation. It is recorded that:—

عَنْ عَائِشَةَ قَالَتْ كُنْتُ أَغَارُ عَلَى اللَّاتِي وَهَبْنَ أَنْفُسَهُنَّ لِرَسُولِ اللَّهِ صلعم فقلت أَتَهَبُ الْمَرْأَةُ نَفْسَهَا فَلَمَّا أَنْزَلَ اللَّهُ تعالى «تُرْجِي مَنْ تَشَاءُ مِنْهُنَّ وَتُؤْوِي إِلَيْكَ مَنْ تَشَاءُ وَمَنِ ابْتَغَيْتَ مِمَّنْ عَزَلْتَ فَلَا جُنَاحَ عَلَيْكَ» قُلْتُ مَا أَرَى رَبَّكَ إِلَّا يُسَارِعُ لَكَ فِي هَوَاكَ. متفق عليه.

“‘Ayesha said, ‘I was reflecting upon the women who had given themselves to the Prophet (upon whom be mercy and peace), and I said, What! does a woman give herself away? Then God sent down the revelation, ‘Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt of them and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou shalt long for of those thou hast before neglected, and this shall be no crime in thee.  ⁵⁷ I said, ‘I see nothing in which your God doth not hasten to please you in your desires.’”

The numerous and contradictory injunctions of the Qur’an with respect to Jihad, or religious warfare, furnish another example of the Prophet’s temporising policy. Any chronological study of that book will make it clear that in the early stages of Islam when Muhammad was a helpless and persecuted refugee, devoid of the means of enforcing his teaching by the stern argument of the sword, he uniformly inculcated a policy of mildness and toleration in dealing with non-Muslims. Thus in Surah al-Baqarah (2:256) we read:—

“Let there be no compulsion in religion;” لَا إِكْرَاهَ فِي الدِّينِ but when fortune had smiled upon him and he found himself surrounded by a band of warlike Arabs lusting for plunder, his ‘revelations’ underwent a remarkable change, and the faithful were urged with vehement persistence to,

وَقَاتِلُوهُمْ حَتَّىٰ لَا تَكُونَ فِتْنَةٌ وَيَكُونَ الدِّينُ لِلَّهِ

“Kill them (the infidels) till all strife be at an end, and the religion be all of God’s;”  ⁵⁸  whilst the very last Sura revealed contains these uncompromising words:—

يَا أَيُّهَا النَّبِيُّ جَاهِدِ الْكُفَّارَ وَالْمُنَافِقِينَ وَاغْلُظْ عَلَيْهِمْ وَمَأْوَاهُمْ جَهَنَّمُ

“O Prophet! contend with the unbelievers and the hypocrites, and be severe unto them, for their dwelling place shall be hell.”  ⁵⁹ 

فَاقْتُلُوا الْمُشْرِكِينَ حَيْثُ وَجَدتُّمُوهُمْ وَخُذُوهُمْ وَاحْصُرُوهُمْ وَاقْعُدُوا لَهُمْ كُلَّ مَرْصَدٍ

“Kill the idolators wheresoever ye shall find them, and take them (Prisoners) and besiege them, and lay wait for them in every convenient place.”  ⁶⁰ 

Muhammad often appealed to the beauty of the Arabic Qur’an, and its inimitable style of composition, in proof of his contention that it was from heaven. He was not loth, however, when a more than usually striking sentence met his ears, to add it to his own collection in order to enhance the latter’s value. Arabic literature furnishes us with not a few instances of such plagiarism, of which the following, may be adduced as examples. Baidawi tells us that:—

عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ سَعْدِ بْنِ أَبِي سَرْحٍ كَانَ يَكْتُبُ لِرَسُولِ اللَّهِ فَلَمَّا نَزَلَتْ «وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا الإِنْسَانَ مِنْ سُلالَةٍ مِنْ طِينٍ» فَلَمَّا بَلَغَ قَوْلَهُ: «ثُمَّ أَنْشَأْنَاهُ خَلْقًا آخَرَ» قَالَ عَبْدُ اللَّهِ: «فَتَبَارَكَ اللَّهُ أَحْسَنُ الْخَالِقِينَ» تَعَجُّبًا مِنْ تَفْصِيلِ خَلْقِ الْإِنْسَانِ فَقَالَ عَلَيْهِ السَّلَامُ: «اكْتُبْهَا فَكَذَلِكَ نَزَلَتْ»، فَشَكَّ عَبْدُ اللَّهِ، وَقَالَ «لَئِنْ كَانَ مُحَمَّدٌ صَادِقًا لَقَدْ أُوحِيَ إِلَيَّ كَمَا أُوحِيَ إِلَيْهِ وَلَئِنْ كَانَ كَاذِبًا لَقَدْ قُلْتُ كَمَا قَالَ» . ⁶¹ 

“‘Abdu’llah bin Sa’ud bin Abi Sarih was an amanuensis of the Prophet. And, when the words descended ‘We created man of fine clay;’  ⁶² and when the words were finished. Then brought We forth him by another creation;’  ⁶³  ‘Abdu’llah exclaimed ‘Blessed therefore be God the most excellent of Makers. He has created man in a wonderful manner.’ Upon this (Muhammad) said, ‘Write those (words) down, for so it has descended.’ But ‘Abdu’llah doubted and said, ‘If Muhammad speak truth, then on me also has inspiration descended as upon him; and if Muhammad speak falsely, then verily I but spake as he did.’“

It is clear from this story as given by Baidawi that Muhammad was so pleased with the beauty of the expression used by his disciple that he immediately decided to give it a place in his Qur’an, where it still stands and, in order to do so, claimed that the very identical words had “descended” upon him also. ‘Abdu’llah was naturally delighted with the compliment paid to his words, and henceforth boasted that on him also inspiration had descended. This, however, called forth the indignation of the Prophet, who proceeded to pour out the vials of his wrath upon ‘Abdu’llah in the following words - which good Muslims are also expected to believe were “revealed”:—

وَمَنْ أَظْلَمُ مِمَّنِ افْتَرَىٰ عَلَى اللَّهِ كَذِبًا أَوْ قَالَ أُوحِيَ إِلَيَّ وَلَمْ يُوحَ إِلَيْهِ شَيْءٌ

“Who is more wicked than he who forgeth a lie concerning God, or saith ‘this was revealed unto me,’ when nothing hath been revealed to him.”  ⁶⁴  From this story, which is also told by Imam Husain, it is self-evident that the style of the Qur’an can no longer be regarded as a miracle, for here we have a verse uttered by one ‘Abdu’llah Ibn Sa’ud, which is fitted to take rank with the rest of the Qur’an, and, indeed, can in no way be distinguished from it. Moreover, it is clear that if Muhammad could thus claim as a revelation, and insert in the Qur’an, words which were uttered in his hearing by one of his followers, it would be equally easy for him to claim the same authority for the stories which he heard at various times from Jews and Christians.

The celebrated Muslim writer Jalalu’d-din as-Syuti has left us conclusive evidence that Muhammad was in the habit of incorporating into the Qur’an such words and sentences of his followers as attracted his attention and secured his approval. Thus in his famous Itqan we read that:—

النوع العاشر فيما نزل من القرآن على لسان بعض الصحابة

“In the tenth part (of this work) are recorded those verses of the Qur’an which descended upon the tongue of certain of the companions of Muhammad.”

In another tradition preserved by Tirmidhi from Ibn ‘Umar we read:—

رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلعم قَالَ: «‏إِنَّ اللَّهَ جَعَلَ الْحَقَّ عَلَى لِسَانِ عُمَرَ وَقَلْبِهِ» ‏

“The Prophet of God (on whom be blessing and peace) said, ‘Verily God placed the truth upon the tongue and heart of ‘Umar.’”  ⁶⁵  So noticeable was Muhammad’s repetition of ‘Umar’s words that Jalalu’d-din tells us the companions of the prophet said:—

إلا نزل القرآن على نحو ما قال عمر

“Has not the Qur’an been revealed according to the sayings of ‘Umar.” Mujahid records another tradition to the same effect. He says:—

كان عمر يرى الرأي فنزل به القرآن

“The Qur’an descended according to the opinion of ‘Umar.” From these traditions it is perfectly clear that ‘Umar was the real author of certain portions of the Qur’an. Muslim literature, in fact, furnishes us with not a few examples of such passages.  ⁶⁶ For example, in the Qur’an we read:—

مَن كَانَ عَدُوّاً لِّجِبْرِيلَ ... وَمِيكَالَ فَإِنَّ اللّهَ عَدُوٌّ لِّلْكَافِرِينَ

“Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel ... or Michael, verily God is an enemy to the unbelievers.”  ⁶⁷  These words were originally spoken by ‘Umar to some Jews, and so pleased with them was Muhammad that he forthwith repeated them as a part of the Qur’an. The whole story is told by Baidawi thus:—

قِيلَ: دَخَلَ عُمَرُ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ تَعَالَى عَنْهُ مَدَارِسَ الْيَهُودِ يَوْمًا، فَسَأَلَهُمْ عَنْ جِبْرِيلَ فَقَالُوا: «ذَاكَ عَدُوُّنَا يُطْلِعُ مُحَمَّدًا عَلَى أَسْرَارِنَا وَإِنَّهُ صَاحِبُ كُلَّ خَسْفٍ وَعَذَابٍ، وَمِيكَائِيلُ صَاحِبُ الْخِصبِ» وَالسَّلَامِ، فَقَالَ: «وَمَا مَنْزِلَتُهُمَا مِنَ اللَّهِ تعالى؟» قَالُوا: «جِبْرِيلُ عَنْ يَمِينِهِ وَمِيكَائِيلُ عَنْ يَسَارِهِ وَبَيْنَهُمَا عَدَاوَةٌ»، فَقَالَ: «لَئِنْ كَانَا كَمَا تَقُولُونَ فَلَيْسَا بِعَدُوَّيْنِ وَلَأَنْتُمْ أَكْفُرُ مِنَ الْحَمِيرِ، وَمَنْ كَانَ عَدُوَّ أَحَدِهِمَا فَهُوَ عَدُوُّ اللَّهِ تعالى». ثُمَّ رَجَعَ عُمَرُ فَوَجَدَ جِبْرِيلَ قَدْ سَبَقَهُ بِالْوَحْيِ فَقَالَ عَلَيْهِ السَّلَامُ: «لَقَدْ وَافَقَكَ رَبُّكَ يَا عُمَرُ».

“It is said that ‘Umar once entered a school of the Jews, and asked them about Gabriel. They replied, ‘He is our enemy; he reveals our secrets to Muhammad; he is also the messenger of wrath and punishment. Michael, on the contrary, brings us prosperity and plenty.’ Then ‘Umar said, ‘What is their position with regard to God?’ and the Jews replied,’ Gabriel on His right, and Michael on His left, but between these two there is enmity.’ But he said, ‘God forbid what it should be as you say; they are not enemies, but you are more unbelieving than the Himyarites. Whosoever is the enemy of either angel, he is the enemy of God.’ Then ‘Umar went away and found that Gabriel had preceded him with a revelation; and Muhammad said to him, ‘Thy Lord hath already agreed with thee, O ‘Umar.’”  ⁶⁸ 

Another authentic tradition handed down to us by Bukhari reveals the origin of three other passages of the Qur’an, and proves conclusively that Muhammad largely added to his work from the sayings of those around him. These traditions, rationally interpreted, absolutely refute the claim that the whole Qur’an was revealed from heaven, and, on the contrary, support the assertion made at the beginning of this book that it is the product of Muhammad’s own genius. The Tradition of Bukhari referred to above runs thus:—

أَخْرَجَ الْبُخَارِيُّ وَغَيْرُهُ، عَنْ أَنَسٍ قَالَ: قَالَ عُمَرُ بن خطاب: وَافَقْتُ رَبِّي فِي ثَلَاثٍ. قُلْتُ: يَا رَسُولَ الِلَّهِ لَوِ اتَّخَذْنَا مِنْ مَقَامِ إِبْرَاهِيمَ مُصَلَّى؟ فَنَزَلَتْ: «وَاتَّخِذُوا مِنْ مَقَامِ إِبْرَاهِيمَ مُصَلًّى». وَقُلْتُ: يَا رَسُولَ الِلَّهِ! إِنَّ نِسَاءَكَ يَدْخُلُ عَلَيْهِنَّ الْبَرُّ وَالْفَاجِرُ، فإن أَمَرْتَهُنَّ يَحْتَجِبْنَ؟ فَنَزَلَتْ آيَةُ الْحِجَابِ. وَاجْتَمَعَ عَلَى رَسُولِ الِلَّهِ نِسَاؤُهُ فِي الْغَيْرَةِ، فَقُلْتُ لَهُنَّ: «عَسَى رَبُّهُ إِنْ طَلَّقَكُنَّ أَنْ يُبْدِلَهُ أَزْوَاجًا خَيْرًا مِنْكُنَّ» فَنَزَلَتْ كَذَلِكَ.

“It is recorded by Bukhari and others that ‘Umar ibn Khattab said, ‘In three things I agreed with my God (that is, with the Qur’an). (The first is that) I said, ‘O Prophet of God, if we were to say our prayers in Abraham’s place, (it would be better).’ Then a revelation came down, ‘Take the place of Abraham for the place of prayer.’ (The second is that) I said, ‘O Prophet of God, good and had people come to your house; if you shut up your women it will be better.’ Then came down the verse of the veil upon the Prophet. (The third is that) the wives of the Prophet were quarreling, and I said to them, ‘It may be that the Lord will divorce you and give the prophet better wives than you in exchange.’ Then came down a revelation like I had spoken.’”  ⁶⁹  As a matter of fact the three verses referred to by ‘Umar may still be found in the Qur’an today in the Surah al-Baqarah (2) and the Surah At-Tahrim (66).

Many more passages of the Qur’an could be quote which Muhammad borrowed from the lips of his friends; the limits of this little book force us to desist.  ⁷⁰ The reader who desires to pursue the subject further may consult Dr. Imadu’d-Din’s famous Hidayatu’l-Muslimin where the matter is dealt with at length. Enough has been written, however, to show how mistaken is the belief that the Qur’an was revealed from heaven by the agency of the angel Gabriel. At the beginning of his career, and when the great truth of the Unity of God laid hold of his soul, Muhammad may have been deluded into the belief that he was inspired; but later on in his career there can be no doubt - the Qur’an itself being witness - that he deliberately forged a number of passages to suit his own purposes.

The great mass of the Qur’anic revelations, however, as we have seen, simply consists of various elements derived from existing materials, which were adopted by Muhammad and cast into the forms which they now assume in the Qur’an. The Prophet himself never tired of reiterating the statement that the Qur’an was sent down

مُصَدِّقًا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنَ الْكِتَابِ ⁷¹ 

“Confirming the scriptures which were before it.” Those Scriptures of the Jews and Christians were admitted by Muhammad himself to be

تَمَامًا عَلَى الَّذِي أَحْسَنَ وَتَفْصِيلًا لِّكُلِّ شَيْءٍ وَهُدًى وَرَحْمَةً ⁷² 

“Complete as to whatever is excellent, and an explanation very question, and a direction and a mercy.” That being so, what need, we ask, for a subsequent revelation? Any careful study of the Bible will convince the unprejudiced reader that the Christian dispensation is to last until the second coming of Christ to judgment; that the Gospel is to be preached to all the nations, and that the kingdom of Christ is a Kingdom which shall have no end. In the Gospel the work of redemption is completed, and it is left to the Christian Church to make known to a sinful world the glad story of salvation through the blood of Christ. There is thus left neither room nor necessity for a subsequent revelation; Christ is “the first and the last”  ⁷³ and “neither is there any other name under heaven, that is given among men, wherein we must be saved.”  ⁷⁴ 

Let the Muhammadan reader earnestly consider these facts, and he will come to see how impossible it is that the Qur’an can be a revelation from God. In that book he is commanded to believe the Gospel; yet a belief in the Gospel must necessarily lead to the rejection of the Qur’an for the latter denies many of the leading truths of the former. In short “Muhammadans are in the awkward predicament of being obliged by their religion to believe in what explodes their religion. They are commanded to believe in two contradictions. They are commanded to accept Jesus as a Prophet and, at the same time, to accept Muhammad. They are enjoined to receive the Old Testament Scriptures as a revelation, although nothing is more obvious in those Scriptures than that the history of Judaism develops into and finds its completion and end in Christianity; and they are enjoined to believe in the New Testament Scriptures, although these writings so distinctly claim to be the final revelation, that it is impossible to find room for the claims of Muhammad as the ultimate revealer of God’s will.  ⁷⁵ Let the reader search those “former Scriptures” of which Muhammad spoke so highly, and he will find in them the way to eternal life.

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CHAPTER II

THE BIRTH AND EARLY LIFE OF MUHAMMAD

MUHAMMAD was born at Mecca in A.D. 570. His father’s name was ‘Abdu'llah, and his mother's Amina. Both belonged to the Quraish tribe of Arabs. The Quraish were the hereditary guardians of the sacred Ka’ba or temple at Mecca, and as such were held in the highest esteem by the Arabs. It is recorded that a few days after the nuptials of ‘Abdullah and Amina had been celebrated, the former proceeded to Syria on a trading expedition. From this he never returned, for on the homeward journey he was attacked with illness and died before reaching his young wife. The latter, a few months later, gave birth to a son whom she named Muhammad. A few weeks later Amina, in conformity with a practice current amongst the city Arabs, handed over her infant child to a woman of the desert Arabs or Bedouin named Halima, who undertook to nurse the fatherless child. The charge thus undertaken lasted for five years, at the expiry of which period the child was again returned to his mother.

In the Qisasu’l-Anbiya and other collections of traditions an extraordinary story is related of an incident which is said to have befallen Muhammad during his stay with Halima. The story goes that one day the child Muhammad was playing with the other sons of Halima (though some reports declare that he was minding goats at the time) when suddenly two angels appeared. These promptly seized the child, and, throwing him on his back, opened his breast, and after washing it with pure water, extracted therefrom a clot of blood, saying as they did so

هذا حظ الشيطان منك يا حبيب الله.

‘This is Satan's portion from thee, O, beloved of God.’ ¹⁶ This done, they restored the child's breast as before, and disappeared as suddenly as they had come!! This astounding story is gravely recorded in the celebrated Mishkatu'l-Masabih ¹⁷ and other Muslim works, and the exuberant fancy of Muhammadan writers has delighted to enlarge upon the incidents there narrated in order to show that thus early Muhammad was being prepared by God for his prophetic mission. Some affirm that Muhammad's heart was thus cleansed, once for all, from all taint of sin; but it would appear that either the angels failed satisfactorily to accomplish their unwonted task, or that Muhammad's personality was so strong that he was able to over-ride the intentions of God, for in the Qisasu’l-Anbiya it is recorded that on a second occasion some years later, when he was about to perform the Mi’raj or miraculous ascent to heaven, two angels again appeared, and after opening Muhammad's breast in a similar manner washed it thoroughly with the famous Zem Zem water of the Ka’ba. ¹⁸ Be that as it may, it is related that Halima became thoroughly alarmed at the story brought her by Muhammad and his companions; and when to this were added not infrequent signs of epilepsy, she resolved to rid herself of so heavy a responsibility by returning the child to his mother. In the Siratu’r-Rasul it is related that her husband also became concerned, and addressing Halima said, ‘O Halima, I fear the child is possessed of Satan, therefore return him to his mother ere the malady further appear.’ Amina listened to the story with interest, exclaiming as she noticed the fears of the child's foster-parents,

أفتخوفت عليه الشيطان.

‘Do ye then fear he is possessed with Satan?’ But the child was still young, and at last, yielding to the entreaties of his mother, Halima consented to keep him still another year. At the expiry of that period she finally, in Muhammad's sixth year, brought him to Mecca, and once more placed him in the care of his mother.

Soon after Muhammad's return to Mecca his mother took him with her on a visit to some relations at Madina. After some days spent pleasantly there, they left on their return journey; but Amina fell sick soon after setting out, and after a short illness expired, leaving the orphan Muhammad to face a cold world without the tender care of father or mother. His upbringing now devolved upon his aged grandfather ‘Abdu'l-Muttalib, who with tender affection watched over the young child's destinies. But 'Abdu'l-Muttalib was an old man of eighty, and two years later he too passed to the great unknown leaving the orphan child in charge of his son Abu Talib. The latter was a good and generous guardian and, until the day of his death many years later, carried out with faithfulness and solicitude the responsibility imposed upon him by his aged father.

In his tenth year Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib on a trading expedition to Syria, where he came into contact with the Christians of that prosperous country. From that date until his assumption of prophetship, thirty years later, there is little of special interest to chronicle in the life of the young Meccan. He was esteemed by his fellow-townsmen for his integrity and honesty of purpose; and it is recorded that his upright behaviour gained for him the title of Al Amin—the Faithful.

Abu Talib's circumstances, however, were not good, and partly upon his advice Muhammad was tempted to seek an independent livelihood. The opportunity soon presented itself, and one day the young Meccan found himself engaged by a wealthy widow named Khadija for a mercantile expedition to Syria. A few days later he departed on his business, having joined a caravan which was journeying thither on a similar errand; and with such ability did he prosecute the business entrusted to him that, on his return, his mistress offered him her hand; and a few days later the marriage was celebrated with great rejoicings. Muhammad's age at this time was about twenty-five years, whilst Khadija's was not less than forty; yet the match proved a thoroughly happy one notwithstanding. Six children were born to them, but nearly all of these died young. Other children of Khadija by her previous marriage are mentioned, some if not all of whom had died previously. Concerning these there is an interesting tradition preserved in the Mishkatu'l-Masabih. One day, after Muhammad's assumption of prophetship,

سَأَلَتْ خَدِيجَةُ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ عَنْ وَلَدَيْنِ مَاتَا لَهَا فِي الْجَاهِلِيَّةِ، فَقَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ: هُمَا فِي النَّارِ.

‘Khadija asked the prophet concerning her two children who had died in the time of ignorance (i.e. before Islam). The prophet of God replied: “They are both in the fire (of hell).”’

There is no doubt that both Khadija and Muhammad were at one time idolaters. Early Muslim annals contain clear proof of this. In the Musnad, for example (vol. iv, p. 222), it is recorded that they were both in the habit of worshipping idols before retiring to rest at night. Ibn Hanbal records the practice thus:

حدثني جار لخديجة بنت خويلد أنه سمع النبي صلعم ويقول لخديجة أي خديجة والله لا أعبد اللات والعزى والله لا أعبد أبداً قال فتقول خديجة خل اللات خل العزى قال كانت صنمهم التي كانوا يعبدون ثم يضطجعون.

‘Abdu'llah said, “A servant of Khadija, daughter of Khualid, related to me that he heard the prophet say to Khadija, O, Khadija., by God I do not (now) worship al Lat or al Azza, and by God, I never will (in future) worship them. He said, Khadija replied, Leave al Lat and al Azza.” ('Abdu'llah) said “These were their idols which they were in the habit of worshipping, after which they retired to rest.”’ The Qur'an itself is not altogether silent on the subject. In Qur’an ad-Duha (93:6-7), we read:

أَلَمْ يَجِدْكَ يَتِيماً فَآوَى وَوَجَدَكَ ضَالاًّ فَهَدَى.

‘Did he not find thee (O Muhammad), an orphan, and gave thee a home; and found thee erring, and guided thee?’ ¹⁹ The famous commentator Jalalu'd-din in his comment upon this passage says:

ووجدك ضالاً عما أنت عليه من الشريعة فهدى أي هداك إليها.

Did he not find thee erring from the Divine law (Shari'at) upon which thou art now (standing), and guided thee to it?’ One of the greatest Indian authorities, Shah Abdul Aziz of Delhi, in his Persian commentary is even more explicit in his exposition of the passage. He says the verse refers to that period of the prophet's spiritual history when ‘he, on attaining to maturity of understanding and wisdom, discovered that the worship of idols and the rites of darkness were mere trash . . . so he gave up the worship of idols, and parted company with those evil rites, and was led to the knowledge of the God of Abraham.’ Again in Qur’an al-Fath (48:1-2), we read:

إِنَّا فَتَحْنَا لَكَ فَتْحاً مُّبِيناً لِيَغْفِرَ لَكَ اللَّهُ مَا تَقَدَّمَ مِن ذَنبِكَ وَمَا تَأَخَّرَ.

‘Verily we have won for thee an undoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later faults.' Concerning this significant passage the commentator 'Abbas writes thus of the ‘earlier’ sins referred to:

ما تقدم من ذنبك قبل الوحي.

‘That is, thy sins which preceded the descent of inspiration.’ ²⁰ ‘Abbas makes it clear that the Qur’anic passage quoted refers to those sins of Muhammad committed in his youth and early manhood; in other words to the sins committed prior to his claim to prophetship. As a matter of fact Muhammad himself, in later years often referred to the sins of his youth, and his prayers for pardon are recorded at great length in the traditions of both Bukhari and Muslim. As an illustration the following prayer of Muhammad recorded in the Mishkatu'l-Masabih, in the Kitabu’s-Salat may be quoted:—

اللَّهُمَّ اغْفِرْ لِي مَا قَدَّمْتُ وَمَا أَخَّرْتُ وَمَا أَسْرَرْتُ وَمَا أَسْرَفْتُ وَمَا أَعْلَنْتُ وَمَا أَنْتَ أَعْلَمُ بِهِ مِنِّي.

‘O God, forgive one the sins I have committed before and after (the descent of inspiration). (Forgive me) those I have concealed, and those I have proclaimed; those which I have committed in excess, and those which thou knowest better than I.’

It is only natural to assume that Muhammad, like his parents and guardians, took part in the idolatrous practices of his people. His parents, we know for certain, worshipped idols, and it is recorded in the Qur'an that, for that reason, Muhammad was prohibited from praying for them after their decease. In Qur’an At-Taubah 9:113, we read:

مَا كَانَ لِلنَّبِيِّ وَالَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ أَن يَسْتَغْفِرُواْ لِلْمُشْرِكِينَ وَلَوْ كَانُواْ أُوْلِي قُرْبَى مِن بَعْدِ مَا تَبَيَّنَ لَهُمْ أَنَّهُمْ أَصْحَابُ الْجَحِيمِ.

‘It is not for the prophet or the faithful to pray for the forgiveness of those, even though they be of kin, who associate other beings with God, after it hath been made clear to them that they are to be the inmates of hell.’

Although Muhammad was in youth and early manhood an idolater, yet with the advance of middle age he became gradually weaned from the polytheistic practices of his countrymen. The influence of his Hanif relations, and his Christian foster-son Zaid, not to speak of the Jews and Christians, gradually led him to the belief in one God, and prepared him almost insensibly for the great message which, he was soon to persuade himself, God had commissioned him to preach.

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